History of Sri Lanka

Early inhabitants

Although fossil evidence is scarce in Sri Lanka, a Stone Age culture apparently emerged on the island around 10,000 BC, which was related to the early settlers in Australia, the Nicobar Islands and Malaysia.

This was followed by the so-called Balangoda culture, which became widespread across the whole of Sri Lanka between 5000 BC and 500 BC. Examples of simple pottery from this era have been found in the Ratnapura district.

The Veddah are the only inhabitants today whose ancestors were in Sri Lanka before the Aryan migrations from northern India, which began from around 500 BC. Related to the Dravidian jungle peoples of southern India, they dwelt in caves and rock shelters, and lived by hunting and gathering. They practised a cult of the dead, communicating with ancestors through reincarnated spirits. Today the Veddah have been largely absorbed into the Sinhalese community and have virtually ceased to have a separate existence. Today may be only 200 or 300 still live in their ancestral homelands and maintain a Stone Age lifestyle, when there were over 5000 Veddah at the beginning of the 20th Century.

The mosaic of cultures in Sri Lanka began with influences from the Indian subcontinent. Early, legendary accounts about the island of Lanka all concur on the point that the island was already inhabited when visitors or settlers arrived from the Indian mainland. In the Indian epic the Ramayana, the wild demon folk, led by their prince Rawana, carried off the noble Sita, wife of the Vishnu incarnation of Rama. Also according to legend, the Buddha, during his three visits to Sri Lanka, is said to have encountered the wild, warring Yaksas and Nagas, whom he was able to convert to his teachings.

Arrivals from India

The overwhelming majority of the present population of Sri Lanka owes its origins to successive waves of migration from two different regions of India.

Most people are of Indo-Aryan origin and came from northern India, migrations starting from around 500 BC. It is most likely that the Sinhalese came from India's northwest, possibly Punjab or Gujarat, and it seems probable that Gujarati traders were already sailing down India's west coast by this time. It is the north Indian Sanskrit base of their language that provides the only undisputed corroboration of the Sinhalese people's origins. However, by tradition, the initial migration was said to have come from north eastern India, from the Indus valley in Bengal, when the exiled Prince Vijaya and 800 of his companions set sail for Lanka. Wherever they arrived from, the Sinhalese immigrants eventually marginalised the Veddah.

The origins of the Tamil settlement are unclear. Invaders from Tamil south India probably began to settle in the north of Sri Lanka during the first century AD, although there is clear evidence of trade between Sri Lanka and southern India from the third century BC. The Tamil people and their language are Dravidian, as opposed to the Aryan Sinhalese.

First royal kingdom

The first great settlement in Sri Lanka was at Anuradhapura, which served as the capital and residence of the Sinhalese kings from 437 BC to 781 AD.

Tradition associates the founding of Sri Lanka's first kingdom with Devanampiya Tissa (250-210 BC), who the Mahavamsa ("Great Chronicle") suggests was converted to Buddhism by Mahinda, son of the great Indian emperor Asoka, at Mihintale near Anuradhapura. The Mahavamsa, written on palm-leaf tablets, is the basic text through which the Buddhist view of the island's history has been passed on by successive generations of bhikkus (Buddhist monks). Like the Old Testament, it is a chronicle of ancient kings interwoven with the theme of a Chosen People guided by the True Faith.

In the third century BC, a decision was made which continues to shape Sri Lanka today. King Devanampiya Tissa made Buddhism the official religion in his state and Anuradhapura its capital. Its territory, known as Rajarata ("Royal Country"), was destined to gain supremacy over the other sections of the country: Malayarata and Ruhuna.

Devanampiya Tissa founded the Mahavihara ("Great Monastery") in Anuradhapura, the first such Buddhist monastic community in the country, which was to have a repeated decisive influence on the land's political fate, and also oversaw the chronicling of the country's history through the Mahavamsa.

Unity, but not for long

The first person who managed to reign over the entire island was Dutthagamenu (161-137 BC), the son of King Kavantissa of Ruhuna (a district covering eastern and southern Sri Lanka).

As prince, he experienced a situation which was common during this tumultuous period in the island's history: the ruler in Anuradhapura was not Sinhalese but rather the Tamil general, Elara, who had seized the throne. Elara conducted the affairs of Rajarata wisely, even in an exemplary manner, for several decades, but the fact remained that he was a usurper and not a Buddhist. Dutthagamenu reproached his father for tolerating this shameful situation and making no attempt to alter it. However, Kavantissa had no desire to expand his kingdom beyond the boundaries of Ruhuna. Instead he exiled his son and heir, who had already sent his father women's clothing as an expression of contempt. After his father's death, Dutthagamenu not only wrested his inheritance from his brother Sadhatissa in battle, but he also went to Anuradhapura, where he fought and defeated Elara. He subsequently resided in the capital of Rajarata as king and ruler over the whole country.

Anuradhapura Period

Vattagamani Abhaya (or Valagambahu) lost his lands to the Panca Dravidians from southern India in 103 BC and had to go into hiding for 14 years, part of which he spent in caves with monks at Dambulla. He owed his reinstatement in 89 BC to Mahatissa, a monk who had been excluded from the Mahavihara. In thanks, the king granted him a special place outside the old monastery. This led to a quarrel within the Mahavihara, which ended with 500 monks joining Mahatissa and moving to the new monastery, which was named Abhayagiri Vihara after the king, its patron. This split effectively reflects the two branches of Buddhism current at that time: the Mahavihara remained faithful to the orthodox Theravada Buddhism, while the Abhayagiri monastery supported the modern Mahayana Buddhism.

Mahasena (274-301) is considered to be one of the great builders of tanks (reservoirs) and irrigation systems. The Minneriya Tank, which dates from this time, is once again being used to irrigate rice paddies.

During the reign of his successor, Sirimeghavana (301-28), the sacred relic of Buddha's tooth was smuggled into Sri Lanka from India, where it was considered to be in danger due to the spread of Hinduism. Rather than being given to the brotherhood, the tooth was handed over to the king, who demonstratively entrusted the valuable relic to Abhayagiri Vihara. Historical records state that annual peraheras (elephant processions) were held in Anuradhapura in honour of the relic.

The first task of Dhatusena (455-73) was to liberate his land from the Tamils, who had ruled it for almost 30 years. Like many leaders both before and after him, he had remained in the south-eastern region of Ruhuna while mustering support against the occupiers. He, too, is remembered as one of the great champions of the irrigation system. The large Kala Wewa Reservoir, built during his reign, is still in use today.

His son, Kasyapa (473-91), who had not been made heir to the throne, murdered Dhatusena and established his capital in the famous rock fortress at Sigiriya. As was common practice in such circumstances, his half-brother, Moggallana (491-508), the rightful heir to the throne, ran off to the mainland to raise an army and take the throne for himself. His negotiations took 18 years, and in the meantime Kasyapa built an impregnable fortress on a 200-metre rock that, even today, towers over the forest below. While there was no sign of Moggallana, Kasyapa indulged himself and added a water garden and a gallery of 500 topless apsaras (heavenly nymphs) so beguiling that generations of graffiti artists have poured out their hearts in verse. However, Moggallana did finally return, and after watching Kasyapa take his own life on the battlefield, he returned the capital to Anuradhapura with the help of his Chola mercenaries.

Even though the Tamils sometimes helped the Sinhalese, and many Sinhalese kings married Tamil women, the number of attacks from southern India continued to increase. In 883, the Pandyas plundered and destroyed Anuradhapura. Although the Sinhalese were able to destroy the southern Indian city of Madurai as part of a successful retaliatory campaign, the Cholas had, in the meantime, gained strength in southern India. In 1017, they took Sri Lanka and carried Mahinda V off to India, where he died in exile in 1029. They also abandoned Anuradhapura as their capital. Polonnaruwa, close to the Ruhuna border, which had previously served mainly as a hideout for rebels, was seen as a more strategically favourable location for government headquarters.

Classical Period

The centuries up to around 500 AD are considered the classical epoch of Sinhalese civilisation. Not that this was a peaceful period. It was not easy to impose central rule on the country, consequently individual provinces broke away, or disputes erupted over succession to the throne. Apart from internal conflicts, there was a constant threat from southern India, where the Pandyas, Pallavas and Cholas were always struggling for power. In the fourth century AD, Hinduism gained strength and largely drove Buddhism out of India. As a result, Sri Lanka saw itself as the keeper of true Buddhism.

Polonnaruwa Period

Despite its short period as capital, Polonnaruwa was the royal seat of three insightful and wise Sinhalese rulers.

Vijayabahu (1070-1110) succeeded in reconquering the country back from the Cholas.

Parakramabahu I (1153-86) repaired the irrigation facilities which had been destroyed and built new ones. He also, during a council, united the dissident chapters of the Buddhist brotherhood. Furthermore, he attracted foreign ambassadors to the country, and is therefore justifiably referred to as "The Great".

Nissanka Malla (1187-96) was another outstanding figure. His legacy includes numerous buildings in Polonnaruwa and stone inscription tablets throughout the country.

Towards the end of the Anuradhapura period, it had already become clear how important the relic of the Sacred Tooth was to the king. Whoever possessed it was considered the rightful ruler of the country. In Polonnaruwa, the imposing Temples of the Tooth built by the three kings are evidence of its significance.

The monks responsible for guarding the relic saved the Sacred Tooth from Magha (1215-36), the much-feared king of Kalinga in eastern India and leader of the "Giants of Kerala". His destructive actions, combined with the continuing quarrels among the Sinhalese over succession to the throne, so weakened the kingdom in the dry zone that large numbers of people left the area and made for the less accessible Hill Country and humid south western region of the island.

Wars had badly damaged the irrigation system at Polonnaruwa, thereby robbing the locals of their basic means of subsistence. The population was further diminished by the spread of malaria. In time, the jungle reclaimed the once majestic royal cities and temple complexes.

Jaffnapatam

A Tamil kingdom was able to establish itself in the north of the island, on the Jaffna Peninsula. In the 13th Century, the Pandyas handed the throne over to one of their generals, Aryacakravarti. When invading Muslims conquered the Pandya Empire on the Indian mainland, he remained in Jaffna as an independent king. He and his followers subsequently made a concerted effort to bring the whole island under their control. The chiefs in the sparsely populated areas south of Jaffna, known as the Vanni, had to pay him tribute. In the north the chiefs were Tamils, in the south they tended to be Sinhalese - generally former army commanders - who had established small autonomous areas of their own.

With the help of the Vanniyars, the local chiefs, the Tamil empire now had allies from Jaffna and Mannar in the west, and along the east coast as far as Yala. Even today, a disproportionate part of the population in these areas speaks Tamil.

Period of Ephemeral Capitals

Almost four centuries passed before Sri Lanka's third and last royal city, Kandy, was established. In the meantime, the capital had moved between various lowland cities: Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Kurunegala, Kotte and Sitawaka, finally ending up in Gampola in the Hill Country.

These frequent changes of location between the 13th and 15th Centuries can be seen as evidence of the Sinhalese kings' weakness in the face of the Tamils in the north. Since the island had only been united on one occasion, it was not unusual for there to be several capitals at the same time. Possession of the sacred Tooth relic remained vital for the ruler's acceptance by his people. Outsiders also wanted possession of the relic. Indian Pandyas and even, once, the Chinese, demanded its surrender.

Kandyan Period and the emergence of the Europeans

The chance landing of a Portuguese ship on the coast of Sri Lanka in 1505, just eight years after Vasco da Gama had navigated a passage around the tip of Africa, was sufficient to awaken the greed of the Europeans for the island's valuable products, especially cinnamon. Sri Lanka's kings, for their part, were not disinclined to acquire foreign goods, and exporting cinnamon seemed a good way to get them.

However, the Portuguese saw their task not only as signing business contracts, but also as crusading against heathenism. Accordingly, they ruthlessly destroyed countless Buddhist and Hindu holy shrines, and scored particular success in converting the lower-caste fishermen living in the west and north of the country to Catholicism. Another notable missionary success was the baptism of the king of Kotte, Dharmapala, in the 16th Century. Dharmapala was so much under their influence that he turned the lands of Buddhist monasteries over to the Franciscan order and appointed the Portuguese king as his own heir.

Even before Dharmapala's death in 1597, the Portuguese had taken charge of the new colony. Because Sri Lanka was divided into several kingdoms, it was easy for the Portuguese to take the western and southern coastal regions so vital for their trade. In 1626, they also gained Jaffna. However, several attempts to take the kingdom of Kandy at the centre of the island, founded at the end of the 16th century, ended in failure.

With the emergence of the United East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie - VOC), which the Dutch founded in 1602, Portuguese fortunes began to wane. After negotiations with Rajasinha II (1635-87), the VOC had taken control of the Portuguese ports by 1658. One hundred years later, it had extended its influence throughout the island.

Meanwhile, Great Britain, Holland's arch rival, gained a strong foothold in India, and thanks to political infighting in Holland, the British were able to acquire Trincomalee, Batticaloa, Jaffna, Negombo and Colombo by 1796. Nineteen years later, the British captured Sri Wikrama Rajasinha, the last Kandy king, effectively securing control of the whole island.

British colonial rule

Although the inhabitants of the coastal region had been in contact with Europeans since the 16th Century, the isolated kingdom of Kandy remained a traditional, feudal state until the 19th Century. This contrast meant that there continued to be a distinction between lowland and Kandy Sinhalese into the 20th Century.

Under British rule, agriculture, infrastructure and administration changed at breakneck speed, and by no means in keeping with the wishes of the Sinhalese. While the so-called Uva (province around Badulla) Rebellion (1817-18) was an organised uprising of the nobility against the new rulers, another revolt manifested itself in the unwillingness of the Sinhalese people to perform paid labour for their new bosses. Consequently, the British brought in Tamils from southern India as labourers, in particular for their tea and rubber plantations. By the time of the country's independence in 1948, their numbers had grown to about one million. In administrative positions, as well, the British preferred the more pliant Tamils to the native Sinhalese.

At the same time, Ceylon, as the island had been called since the arrival of the Portuguese, developed into a model state in the Asian world - at least by European standards. The expansion of the plantations and the country's military defence necessitated the construction of railway lines and the expansion of the road network. Ordinance surveys provided, among other benefits, knowledge on how to reclaim the dry zone for use as arable land for the growing population.

Thanks to its school system, Ceylon became a country with an above-average literacy rate, compared to other colonial countries. Steps towards political independence were evident in the formation of the National Congress in 1919, the introduction of the vote for women as early as 1931, and the draft for a new constitution in 1944. Sri Lanka became independent on February 4, 1948.

First years of independence

D.S. Senanayake had formed the United National Party (UNP) under British rule, and had served as Minister of Agriculture. He won the first elections and was Prime Minister up until his death in 1952. He was succeeded by his son, Dudley Senanayake, but the island's economic problems forced him to implement unpopular measures, such as raising the price of rice, Sri Lanka's staple food, and reducing state support to farmers.

Meanwhile, the Sinhalese had begun to realise that a disproportionate number of Tamils had been given administrative posts during the colonial period, were generally better educated, and made up the larger portion of university students. And Buddhists criticised the government for failing to make the country the keeper of Buddha's true doctrine as the Enlightened One had commanded, according to the Mahavamsa.

In 1956, Buddhists around the world celebrated the 2500th anniversary of Buddha's death. This Buddha Jayanthi was an occasion for widespread celebrations in Sri Lanka, and it was the year Solomon Bandaranaike and his Sri Lankan Freedom Party (SLFP) gained an overwhelming election victory. The son of a wealthy Sinhalese plantation owner, he had been discriminated against during his studies at Oxford University. With his pride wounded, he left the Anglican Church and embraced Buddhism, and went on to take pains to erase all traces of colonialism.

One of his demands was that people speak their native tongue, rather than English, the lingua franca at that time. Soon, the slogan of his movement had become "Sinhala only", which excluded, of course, anyone whose native language was Tamil. This nationalist-cum-religious battle over language led to an open conflict between Tamils and Sinhalese. But there were also enemies in the ranks of those who had helped Bandaranaike to political victory. In 1959, a Buddhist monk shot the Prime Minister as he was bowing to him in reverence.

Asia's first woman prime minister

After a period of interim government by the UNP, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Solomon Bandaranaike's widow, won the 1960 election to become Asia's first woman Prime Minister. Under her, the party swung heavily to the left.

There followed a period of socialist-style nationalisation. Government takeover of private schools especially affected Sri Lanka's many Catholics. The language conflict continued, and remained unresolved under the ensuing conservative UNP government, headed again by Dudley Senanayake (1965-70). However, he also failed to solve the country's other pressing problems such as unemployment, inflation and rising costs of food imports.

In 1970, Sirimavo Bandaranaike was able to regain her post as Prime Minister thanks to the coalition support of a number of left-wing parties. The most important areas of the economy were nationalised, including all plantations, oil companies and other major industries. Individuals were only allowed to own a few acres of land.

In 1972, a new constitution established Sinhala as the national language, and the island was re-christened Sri Lanka, meaning "shining country" or "beautiful land". Increasing evidence of discrimination against Tamils gave rise to ideas about forming a separate, independent state in the north of the country.

In 1974, some of the previously stateless Indian Tamils were granted Sri Lankan citizenship. However, the remaining 350,000 or so were sent back to Tamil Nadu in southern India.

Economic growth under the UNP

Sri Lanka was rocked by widespread strikes when, in 1977, the UNP led by J.R. Jayewardene won a convincing victory in the National Assembly. The constitution was amended, establishing a presidential government under Jayewardene.

The language conflict was defused by the recognition of Tamil as a national language, while Sinhala was retained as Sri Lanka's official language. The discriminatory distinction between Indian and Sri Lankan Tamils was abolished. The abandonment of nationalisation resulted in significant gains for the country, and in 1982 the President was re-elected, an effective popular confirmation of the new political direction.

In 1983, with the economy back on track and influx of foreign investment and tourism, growing optimism was shattered when Jaffna (Tamil) secessionists, soon to be known as the "Tamil Tigers" (correctly, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam [LTTE]), ambushed an army patrol, killing an officer and 12 soldiers. Racial violence erupted in "Black July" with Sinhalese attacks on the Tamil civilian population that left 387 dead and saw 90,000 Tamils packed into refugee camps. A bill was rushed through parliament to outlaw all separatist movements. However, 16 Tamil MPs baulked at some of the implications of the bill, refused to swear loyalty to parliament, and were expelled. Their departure made the SLFP the largest opposition party again but not under Mrs Bandaranaike. She had been impeached for abusing her powers as prime minister and had been stripped of all civic rights. The new party leader was her son, Anura Bandaranaike.

Neither President Jayewardene nor his successor R. Premadasa (1988) was able to bring about any form of reconciliation, and their efforts were met with fierce opposition. The LTTE demanded the creation of an independent Tamil state in the north and east of the country, and used mainly guerrilla tactics in the pursuit of their goal. A sigh of relief went up when the Indian peacekeeping troops, which had been stationed in Sri Lanka since 1987 by agreement between Jayewardene and the Indian premier, Rajiv Gandhi, were withdrawn in 1990, but the UNP was unable to provide a lasting solution to the problem. Instead, it concentrated on improving the economy - with evident success. The privatisation of companies that had long been under state control, and new income from foreign investors, were clear factors in the country's economic improvement.

More recent times

Despite the economic success of the UNP's policies, the incumbent party remained powerless in the face of the LTTE, and towards the end of their 17 years in office their members had been charged with so many corruption and murder scandals that a political change was inevitable. In 1994, Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga, daughter of Solomon and Sirimavo Bandaranaike, won a resounding victory in the parliamentary elections with her alliance of SLFP, Tamil and Muslim parties, and in the ensuing direct elections was voted President. Her narrow victory in 2000, however, was indicative of her political and military failures during her previous term in office.

In the meantime, although the Sri Lankan army established a foothold in Jaffna, the LTTE continued to effectively control the north and east of the country. Intense fighting between government forces and the LTTE throughout 2000 continued on into 2001, claiming further lives in a conflict that had already killed more than 50,000 people. The situation came to a head in July 2001 when the LTTE bombed the international airport at Katunayake near Colombo, destroying aircraft and stranding hundreds of foreign tourists.

Norwegian-brokered peace talks between the new Sri Lankan government of Ranil Wickremesinghe and the LTTE began in February 2002 after the two sides had agreed a bilateral ceasefire. Areas in the north and east of the country reopened after more than 20 years of conflict, flights resumed between Colombo and Jaffna, and the road linking the Jaffna peninsula with the rest of Sri Lanka reopened after 12 years. The government lifted the ban on the LTTE after the rebels dropped their demand for a separate state and they began de-commissioning weapons. However, the peace accord was short-lived as old prejudices and a lack of trust between parties divided the two sides, culminating in the LTTE pulling out of the peace talks. Against all odds, the ceasefire held.

Following the breakdown of the peace talks and political disagreements between President Kumaratunga and Prime Minister Wickremesinghe, the president dissolved parliament, ousting Ranil Wickremesinghe from office. The President's party won the subsequent elections and Mahinda Rajapaksa became the new prime minister. Meanwhile, in the east of the country, the LTTE commander, Colonel "Karuna", split the rebel movement by going underground with his supporters, but a quick fire LTTE offensive regained control of the eastern region.

And then nature strikes… On 26 December 2004, more than 30,000 people were killed when massive waves (tsunamis), generated by a powerful undersea earthquake off the coast of Indonesia, devastated coastal communities. An ensuing row over the deal reached with the LTTE to share nearly US$3billion in tsunami aid among Sinhalas, Tamils and Muslims wasted a golden opportunity to negotiate peace garnered by the goodwill engendered across the island following the tsunami.

An unsuccessful bid for an unprecedented and unconstitutional third term in office by President Kumaratunga led the SLFP to choose Mahinda Rajapaksa as their presidential candidate and he was sworn in as the fifth president of Sri Lanka in 2005 following a closely contested election, although most Tamils in areas controlled by the LTTE did not vote.

Attacks by the LTTE began to escalate again during 2006, with a suicide bomber attacking the main military compound in Colombo, killing at least eight people. The military launched retaliatory air strikes on LTTE targets, leading the LTTE to fight back by attacking a naval convoy near Jaffna. Full-bloodied fighting between the LTTE and government forces resumed in the northeast in the worst clashes since the 2002 ceasefire. However, the government made significant gains by steadily driving the LTTE out of eastern strongholds over the following year. Another attempt at peace talks in Geneva failed, leaving the country entrenched in yet another phase of the internal conflict.

Peace at last

At the beginning of 2008, the government officially pulled out of the 2002 ceasefire agreement, even though the fragile peace accord had realistically fallen apart in 2004. An international panel, invited by the government to monitor investigations into alleged human rights abuses, announced that it was leaving the country. Panel member Sir Nigel Rodley stated that the authorities were hindering its work, but the government rejected the criticism. In the ensuing months, government forces made significant advances into LTTE-controlled areas, capturing the important LTTE naval base of Vidattaltivu in the north. However, the LTTE mounted various attacks on different fronts, including a suicide bombing in Anuradhapura that killed a former general and 26 other people. As the conflict escalated further during the year, both Sri Lankan forces and the LTTE claimed to have inflicted heavy casualties on each other in fierce fighting in the north, although the government appeared to have the upper hand by the year's end.

Unprecedented territorial gains by government forces in early 2009 included the capture of the northern town of Kilinochchi, held for ten years by the LTTE as their administrative headquarters. President Mahinda Rajapaksa hailed it an unparalleled victory and urged the LTTE to surrender. At the same time, international concern over the humanitarian situation of thousands of civilians trapped in the battle zone prompted calls for a temporary ceasefire. The government, which said it was on the verge of destroying the LTTE, rejected these pleas, but it did offer an amnesty to LTTE rebels if they surrendered. As a last ditch attempt at causing mayhem in Colombo, LTTE planes conducted suicide raids against the capital, but with little effect, and all three planes were destroyed.

Former LTTE leader Karuna was sworn in as minister of national integration and reconciliation while his former rebel colleagues were being systematically cleared from their last remaining and ever diminishing territory in the northeast of the island. With thousands of civilians trapped in the war zone, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Navi Pillay, accused both sides of war crimes; the government for continuing its artillery bombardment of the region and the LTTE for using the civilians as human shields. Finally, in May 2009, the government officially declared that the LTTE were defeated after army forces overran the last patch of rebel-held territory in the northeast. It was also reported that the LTTE rebel leader, Velupillai Prabhakaran, was killed in the fighting, along with most of his top military cadres. The de facto LTTE leadership in absentia stated that the group would lay down its arms once and for all, so drawing to a close one of the world's longest running and bloodiest conflicts.

A new peaceful era dawns for a united Sri Lanka…